Introduction to Lexical Semantics

<p><em>An Introduction to Lexical Semantics</em> provides a comprehensive theoretical overview of lexical semantics, analysing the major lexical categories in English: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions. The book illustrates step-by-step how to use formal semantic tools. </p><p>Divided into four parts, covering the key aspects of lexical semantics, this book: </p><ul> <li>introduces readers to the major influential theories including the syntax-lexical semantics interface theory by Levin and Rappaport and Pinker, the generative lexicon theory by Pustejovsky and formal semantic analyses </li> <li>discusses key topics in formal semantics including metonymy, metaphor and polysemy </li> <li> illustrates how to study word meaning scientifically by discussing mathematical notions applied to compositional semantics. </li> </ul><p>Including reflection questions, summaries, further reading and practice exercises for each chapter, this accessible guide to lexical semantics is essential reading for advanced students and teachers of formal semantics.</p> <p><em>List of Figures</em></p><p><em>List of Tables</em></p><p><em>List of Symbols</em></p><p><strong>Part I. Preliminaries</strong></p><p>1 Introduction </p><p>1.1 Lexical and Compositional Semantics </p><p>1.2 Defining Lexeme, Word, and Meaning</p><p>1.2.1 Lexeme</p><p>1.2.2 Word</p><p>1.2.3 Meaning</p><p>1.3 Meaning-to-Form Perspective</p><p>1.3.1 Lexical Field Theory</p><p>1.3.2 Componential Analyses</p><p>1.3.3 Conceptual Semantics</p><p>1.3.4 Natural Semantic Metalanguage </p><p>1.3.5 Prototype Theory</p><p>1.3.6 Frame Semantics</p><p>1.4 Form-to-Meaning Perspective</p><p>1.4.1 Polysemy</p><p>1.4.2 Coercion</p><p>1.4.3 Metonymy</p><p>1.4.4 Metaphor</p><p>1.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>2. Methods</p><p>2.1 Logical Language</p><p>2.2.1 Propositional Calculus</p><p>2.2.2 Predicate Calculus</p><p>2.2.3 Lambda Calculus</p><p>2.2 Model Theory</p><p>2.2.1 Truth Relative to a Model</p><p>2.2.2 Intensional Models</p><p>2.3 Type Theory</p><p>2.3.1 Basic and Functional Types</p><p>2.3.2 Many-sorted Types </p><p>2.4 Lexical Entailments</p><p>2.4.1 Grammatical Distributions of Words</p><p>2.4.2 Lexical Decomposition</p><p>2.4.3 Meaning Postulates</p><p>2.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p><strong>Part II. Verbs</strong></p><p>3. Common Classifications of Verbs</p><p>3.1 Ingredients of Verb Semantics</p><p>3.1.1 Valency and Argument Order</p><p>3.1.2 Event Semantics</p><p>3.2 Thematic Roles </p><p>3.2.1 Major Theta-Roles</p><p>3.2.2 UTAH and the Thematic Hierarchy</p><p>3.2.3 Proto Roles</p><p>3.3 Aspectual Classes </p><p>3.3.1 Aktionsart</p><p>3.3.2 Operational Tests</p><p>3.4 Event Templatic Structure </p><p>3.4.1 Templates and Rroots</p><p>3.4.2 Ontological Types of Roots</p><p>3.4.3 Consequences of the Bipartite View</p><p>3.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading </p><p>Practice</p><p>Chapter 4. Types of Verbs</p><p>4.1 Many-Sorted Types in the Eventuality Domain </p><p>4.1.1 The Logic of Change</p><p>4.1.2 The Hierarchy of Many-Sorted Types in the Eventuality Domain </p><p>4.2 Process and Event Type Verbs </p><p>4.2.1 The Change of State Domain</p><p>4.2.2 Manner of Motion and Directed Motion Verbs</p><p>4.2.3 Mereology</p><p>4.3 Punctual and Durative Event Type Verbs </p><p>4.3.1 Semantics of Incrementality</p><p>4.3.2 Ditransitive Verbs in the Dative Alternation</p><p>4.4 Bounded and Unbounded Durative Event Type Verbs </p><p>4.4.1 Variable Telicity and Degree Achievements </p><p>4.4.2 The Degree Argument and a Standard of Comparison</p><p>4.4.3 A Measure of Change Function</p><p>4.5 Conclusion </p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>5. Polysemy and Coercion</p><p>5.1 Polysemy</p><p>5.1.1 Problems with Verbal Polysemy</p><p>5.1.2 The Sense Enumerative Lexical Model <br>5.1.3 Co-compositionality</p><p>5.2 Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy</p><p>5.2.1 Literalist Approach </p><p>5.2.2 Over-Specification Approach</p><p>5.2.3 Under-Specification Approach</p><p>5.3 Coercion</p><p>5.3.1 Complement Coercion</p><p>5.3.2 Aspectual Coercion</p><p>5.4 Event-like Behaviors of Stative Verbs </p><p>5.4.1 Manner Modification </p><p>5.4.2 Analyses Without Coercion</p><p>5.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p><strong>Part III. Nouns</strong></p><p>6. Theories of Nouns</p><p>6.1 Names</p><p>6.1.1 Criteria of Identity</p><p>6.1.2 Names as Rigid Designators </p><p>6.1.3 Fictional Names</p><p>6.2 Reference to Kind</p><p>6.2.1 Interpretation of Bare Nouns</p><p>6.2.2 Object, Kind, and Stage</p><p>6.2.3 Nominalization and Predicativization</p><p>6.3 Qualia Structure </p><p>6.3.1 Formal and Constitutive Qualia </p><p>6.3.2 Telic and Agentive Qualia </p><p>6.4 Complex Types</p><p>6.4.1 Dot Objects</p><p>6.4.2 Product Types and the Object Elaboration</p><p>6.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>7. Types of Nouns</p><p>7.1 Object and Substance Type Nouns</p><p>7.1.1 Many-Sorted Types in the Domain of Things </p><p>7.1.2 The Count Versus Mass Distinction </p><p>7.1.3 Lattice-Theoretic Analyses of Mass Nouns</p><p>7.1.4 Relationship to the Ontology </p><p>7.1.5 Universal Packager and Universal Grinder</p><p>7.2 Natural Kind and Artifact Object Type Nouns</p><p>7.2.1 Philosophical Debates </p><p>7.2.2 Artifact Nouns and Telic Qualia </p><p>7.3 Animate and Inanimate Natural Kind Object Type Nouns</p><p>7.3.1 The Animacy Hierarchy and Grammatical Effects </p><p>7.3.2 Shifting Animacy </p><p>7.4 Eventuality Type Nouns</p><p>7.4.1 Deverbal Nouns </p><p>7.4.2 Abstract Nouns </p><p>7.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>8. Metonymy and Metaphor</p><p>8.1 Metonymy and its Neighboring Concepts </p><p>8.1.1 Diverse Relations in Metonymy </p><p>8.1.2 Metonymy and Reference Transfer</p><p>8.1.3 Metonymy, Coercion, and Dot Objects</p><p>8.2 Theories of Metonymy </p><p>8.2.1 Radical Pragmatic Theories </p><p>8.2.2 Rule-Based Approaches </p><p>8.2.3 An Integrated Approach</p><p>8.3 Metaphor as Conceptual Domain Mapping</p><p>8.3.1 Comparison- and Categorization-Based Theories</p><p>8.3.2 Conceptual Metaphor Theory</p><p>8.4 Formal Approaches of Metaphor </p><p>8.4.1 A Reductionist Approach </p><p>8.4.2 An Intensional Approach</p><p>8.4.3 A Pragmatic Rule Approach </p><p>8.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p><strong>Part IV. Other Lexical Categories</strong></p><p>Chapter 9. Types of Adjectives</p><p>9.1 Typology of Adjectives</p><p>9.1.1 Overview</p><p>9.1.2 Intersective Adjectives</p><p>9.1.3 Subsective Adjectives</p><p>9.1.4 Intensional Adjectives</p><p>9.2 Scale Structure</p><p>9.2.1 Absolute and Relative Adjectives</p><p>9.2.2 Polar Antonyms</p><p>9.3 Non-Dimensional or Evaluative Adjectives</p><p>9.3.1 Subjectivity </p><p>9.3.2 Context-Sensitivity </p><p>9.4 The Order of Attributive Adjectives</p><p>9.4.1 Inherent and Non-Inherent Qualities</p><p>9.4.2 Intersective and Subsective Readings </p><p>9.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>Chapter 10. Theories of Adjective Meaning</p><p>10.1 Type Homogeneity Versus Heterogeneity Hypotheses </p><p>10.1.1 Predicate Versus Modifier Analyses</p><p>10.1.2 Doublet Theory</p><p>10.1.3 Event-based Theory</p><p>10.2 Theories of Vagueness </p><p>10.2.1 Vagueness, ambiguity and imprecision</p><p>10.2.2 Fuzzy-Logic Theories</p><p>10.2.3 Super-Valuation Theories</p><p>10.3 Degree-based Theories</p><p>10.3.1 Scales and Degrees</p><p>10.3.2 Degree Arguments and the Implicit Degree Word</p><p>10.4 Predicates of Personal Taste </p><p>10.4.1 Relativist Accounts</p><p>10.4.2 Contextualist Accounts</p><p>10.5 Conclusion </p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>Chapter 11. The Semantics of Adverbs</p><p>11.1 Interpretive Issues Regarding Adverbs</p><p>11.1.1 Adverbs and Adverbials </p><p>11.1.2 Predicational and Functional Adverbs</p><p>11.1.3 The Universal Adverb Hierarchy</p><p>11.2 Typology of Adverbs</p><p>11.2.1 Manner Adverbs</p><p>11.2.2 Subject-Oriented Adverbs </p><p>11.2.3 Speaker-Oriented Adverbs</p><p>11.3 Theoretical Approaches to Adverbs</p><p>11.3.1 The Predicate Analysis</p><p>11.3.2 The Operator Analysis</p><p>11.3.3 Analyses of Speech-Act Adverbs</p><p>11.4 Treating Adverbs as Arguments of Verbs</p><p>11.4.1 Verb Augmentations</p><p>11.4.2 Subject-Oriented Readings</p><p>11.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>Chapter 12. The Semantics of Prepositions</p><p>12.1 Typology of Prepositions </p><p>12.1.1 Do Prepositions Form a Lexical Category?</p><p>12.1.2 Locative and directional prepositions<br>12.1.3 Algebra of path</p><p>12.2 Vector Space Semantics</p><p>12.2.1 Problems with the Point Ontology</p><p>12.2.2 Vector Ontology</p><p>12.2.3 Topological Prepositions in Vector Space Semantics</p><p>12.2.4 Projective Prepositions in Vector Space Semantics</p><p>12.3 Directional Prepositions</p><p>12.3.1 Path</p><p>12.3.2 Analyses of Directional Prepositions</p><p>12.3.3 Aspectual Properties</p><p>12.4 Pragmatics of Prepositions</p><p>12.4.1 Functional Aspects</p><p>12.4.2 Polysemy</p><p>12.4.3 Metaphoric Extensions</p><p>12.4.4 Primacy of Spatial Relations</p><p>12.5 Conclusion</p><p>Suggested Reading</p><p>Practice</p><p>Epilogue</p><p>References</p><p>Index</p>